"I caught on to the finance stuff

really fast. There are things that

you like to do, then there are things

that you are very good at. I would love

to be a Broadway star, but I am not

Bernadette Peters. I am very good at finance."

Deborah A. Coleman

VP and CFO, Apple Computer

"Set high standards

and give support."

Maurice Line

This chapter focuses on women and management, but a number of the points discussed that are also relevant to the broader question of the promotion of equal opportunities (see Chapter 14). Women comprise but one of the groups in society that can encounter discrimination in the workplace. Strategies that can be used to increase opportunities for women to move into management roles can also bring benefit to other groups. The chapter will consider the broad issues, discuss policies and practices that should be implemented by organizations, suggest strategies that can be used by women, and examine the obstacles that may be encountered on the way to progressing to senior levels of management.

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Writing about women and management is a challenging task. The volume of literature has grown, particularly during the past twenty years. The culture from which this literature has emerged, and the general employment issues that vary from one continent to another have shaped the viewpoints. To generalize can be dangerous, and so the writings and other information sources relating to specific geographical areas should be consulted. But one generalization can be made: there has been an increase in the number of women holding senior positions in business, the public sector, and the professions. That is the upside-the downside is that generally men still outnumber women in the most senior positions across the board.

In the information profession the situation varies around the world. In the Caribbean, for example, women dominate the management positions in libraries (Stoute-Oni, 1995). Elsewhere it may be different for cultural or historical reasons. In the U.S. in 1994 the situation was that:

A survey of senior management in the library and information sector in the U.K. found that only 7 percent of the women who responded were in positions with management responsibilities for 50 or more staff, compared with 16 percent of the men (Poland, Curran, and Owens, 1996).

The situation in India has been described:

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We base our rationale for examining issues of equal opportunity on the premise that every human being has a need to achieve the goals that they set for themselves as individuals. These goals may well lie in their careers. Therefore, if large proportions of the people entering a profession are women, it is reasonable to expect that they should be able to gain promotion at the same rate as men. However, the evidence appears to indicate that, while progress has been made, there is still some way to go if an equal number of women and men are to hold the very senior posts.

Both women and employers can take action to turn expectations into reality. While employers may be aware of the need to take action, they may not necessarily have identified and implemented effective strategies to achieve the goal of equal opportunity. Equally, women can take action to enhance their promotion prospects. In Chapter 20 we discuss the general question of career development.

One of the problems of writing on the subject of women and management, or indeed to single women out in any way, is to create a view that they are "different." They are different in many ways, but women have proven that they are successful in a managerial role. However, the "difference" factor can mean that women may well encounter a questioning, or suspicion, about their abilities. It is a factor that has to be recognized by women moving into a management role, particularly in those organizations in which the senior managers to date have generally been men. Skills need to be acquired to handle the situation before it arises. "Be prepared" is a good mantra.

Women have traditionally been attracted to careers in information and library services and, in the past, have represented some three-quarters or more of the entrants to programs that prepare librarians. Increasing numbers of women progress to top positions in both small and large information and library services, particularly in those countries that have adopted equal opportunity legislation (see Chapter 14). But while the numbers of women holding the top positions increases, the view is still expressed that it is more difficult for a woman to reach senior management positions than it is for a man.

There is a well-known quotation from Melvil Dewey made just over a century ago. His telling comment came when, as head of the first library school in the U.S., he was asked to recommend a man to start a library and library school at the Armour Institute in Chicago. He replied, "The best man in America is a woman, and she is in the next room" (Passet, 1994: 3).

The woman in question was Katharine L. Sharpe. She provided leadership among the women of her generation and they, in turn, mentored succeeding generations of women in U.S. librarianship. Mentoring has been of great value in encouraging women to achieve the highest posts. In the U.K., notable county librarians such as Gwenda Jones and Lorna Paulin became role models for women in the 1960s.

The 1960s was a decade of rapid growth in library and other public services in the Western world, and an acute shortage of qualified staff characterized the labor market. At the same time there was a shortage of qualified staff and there emerged a re-awakening of consciousness about feminist issues. Qualified women librarians, medical practitioners, teachers, and social workers were among the professions that commissioned studies of what was termed "wastage" from these professions. Attention was drawn to the numbers of women holding professional qualifications that were not economically active but that, with encouragement, might be encouraged to return to work (Layzell Ward, 1996).

Weibel and Heim have documented an account of the position of women between 1876 and 1976 in the ILS profession and noted that as late as 1979:

A study of the career patterns of U.S. women librarians with doctorates reported that around one-third had experienced discrimination, with hiring and salary differentials being most frequently cited (Dale, 1980). In the late 1990s, a survey carried out to study the factors that block the advancement of U.S. women library directors found that deprivation behavior or antimentoring supported a glass ceiling. A second survey found that mentoring is a central factor in the career development of many women library directors (Kirkland, 1997).

Although the situation has changed since the late 1970s, the number of articles that regularly appear in the professional press around the world suggests that full equality has still to be achieved.

The literature of feminism is extensive and rich, and much has been shaped by the culture from which it has emerged. The feminist perspective and agenda changes over time, and the brief overview that follows covers the period from the 1960s to date.

A new wave of feminism emerged in the 1960s and, at this time, the discourse is centered on gender equality and differences. In a number of Western countries, the women’s movements lobbied governments for the introduction of legislation for equal pay, equal opportunities, and equal conditions in society. Legislation was enacted and a start was made to implement the legislation through the establishment of equal opportunity agencies within governments. Some countries, such as the United States, went a step further and introduced affirmative action policies.

The feminist discourse in the 1960s considered the ways in which women were similar to men, and those in which they were dissimilar. The "norm" was seen by society as that which men needed and making any provision for women was seen as requiring "special arrangements"-for example in the provision of childcare facilities in the workplace. Childcare was seen as a mother’s "problem," not a father's. Another example of the obstacles that women faced in career development was that women working in the public sector in some countries were required to resign on marriage, presuming that they would have children and would need to stay at home to care for the family. The feminist movement was a force for change.

The feminist debate moved on in the 1970s to consider the variation between groups and categories of women, recognizing that women are not a homogenous group. This drew attention to the needs of individual women, recognizing that one woman does not speak for all. Tobias (1997) has described the period from the 1960s to the 1990s in the U.S. She discusses the issues and provides a chronology of major events. Since the writings of U.S. feminists such as Betty Friedan, Gloria Steinem, and Kate Millett influenced writers in other countries-such as Germaine Greer from Australia and Anne Oakley in the U.K.-Tobais provides an informative contribution to the history of modern feminism.

Postmodernism has influenced the more recent debate. It discusses the concept of truth and, at its simplest level, argues that we cannot use an all-embracing notion of "women" and "gender." The writings discuss the fragmented self and there is a range of texts that consider these questions, such as that by Evans (1995).

Women managers at large have been influenced by the feminist debate. Marshall, for example, writing in the mid-1980s, described how her views developed into radical feminism and influenced her role concerning the management role (Marshall, 1984).

Within the library profession, the feminist writings from the 1960s fueled the debate concerning the disadvantages and discriminatory practices that often impeded the advancement of women. In a number of countries, women librarians met together to discuss issues, air their feelings, and to network. The journals of the national library associations record the debate. The authors recall the momentous first conference on women organized by the American Library Association in the early 1970s. From such interaction, effective lobbying took place within national library associations to keep equal opportunity issues at the forefront of professional issues-though it took a decade for this to be extended to equal opportunity for ethnic minorities.

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There is an extensive body of literature concerning the cultural factors that can influence women, much of which has been prompted by the feminist debate. Attitudes concerning the role of women are influenced by personal experience and conditioning. The local culture within a geographic area exerts an influence on the expectations of, and by, the women within that community. Within the family unit, conditioning results, in part, from family views and practices. Women who have careers can be powerful role models for daughters and younger women in the family and the community. By contrast, a less favorable influence can come from sex role stereotyping. Older managers, both men and women, may still carry stereotypes set some years ago. This attitude can create a barrier for women with whom they are working-this has been labeled "the culture trap." A second trap is the "low expectation trap," particularly in a male dominated organization. Feeling inadequate, a vicious circle can develop (Davidson and Cooper, 1983). Both men and women can experience the fear of success in jobs not commonly associated with their gender, and this can inhibit their development and achievements.

There is a view that women may not naturally become assertive, or seek power, if they have been expected to take a development role that makes them more amenable to outside influences and be less self-reliant (Davidson and Cooper, 1992). The dilemmas that women face have been labeled as "double binds" by Jamieson (1995), who describes them as being womb/brain, silence/shame, sameness/difference, femininity/competence, and aging/invisibility. Whatever choice the woman makes, she will be condemned. For example, if a women is a full-time mother, her neighbor at dinner will assume that she has nothing interesting to say; but if she is in paid employment outside the home, she has either cut off feelings and emotions or else she neglects her children and exploits her husband.

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While the career patterns of both men and women will be influenced by demographic change, in the past the patterns of women were more likely to be susceptible to change. From the 1980s and, increasingly, during the 1990s there has been a considerable increase in the number of women professionals who combine childbearing with their career development.

A number of different career patterns have emerged. Some women take a short break for maternity leave. Other women are choosing to start their family at a later age after having established a career path. Moving up a career ladder before starting a family is likely to produce a number of benefits, which includes a level of salary enabling good childcare and help in the home to be obtained. Some women prefer to take a longer career break, spending time at home with their young family but feeling more secure about a later return to their career. Men’s career patterns are also changing and a growing number are now choosing to take the caregiver’s role that enables the women to focus on her career.

Another caring role has emerged within many families as a result of demographic change. As we live longer, so caring for elderly relatives is creating a social dilemma in those countries where the bonds of the extended family have loosened. The responsibility for the care of the elderly relatives frequently falls to women, and some are finding themselves in the "sandwich generation." Initially they take a career break to care for young children, and then face the need to take early retirement to care for ageing relatives (Wilcox, 1995). This social dilemma has been addressed by Scandinavian governments, and other countries are following their lead by developing "family friendly" policies. Such policies enable leave to be taken at times of sickness in the family, or when there is a need to care for children or the elderly. Some far-sighted employers that provide childcare facilities are now extending this to day care for the elderly.

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Chapter 14 reviews EEO legislation and affirmative action. In this section we take an overview of the EEO legislation and the work of the national agencies involved in its implementation.

We cannot discuss the question of women in management without considering the legal framework surrounding employment legislation. In addition to actions taken by national governments, regional governments increasingly exert an influence. In Europe, for example, the European Union is working to promote equal opportunities for women and men. It has brought attention to the fact that the implementation of legislation is not enough. The importance of implementing specific actions such as raising awareness, establishing networks, disseminating information, and providing financial support for action projects has been recognized.

Many national governments have implemented programs and established agencies to ensure that the legislation is both appropriate and effective. These agencies have the task of identifying areas where there is a need for new legislation and provide advice on drafting legislation, monitoring its effectiveness after implementation, raising awareness of equality issues, and advising those who encounter problems. The feedback provided to the agencies by those who encounter discrimination helps to refine the legislation. The charge of the agencies is generally to act on the behalf of both men and women. For example, in both Australia and the U.K., complaints have been received from male library assistants who have encountered discriminatory practices in the workplace.

The national agencies, such as those in the U.S. and U.K., encourage employer associations to prepare guidelines for use within their fields of interest and to audit and monitor progress. This action not only increases awareness, but also leads larger organizations to develop in-house programs to prepare women for management roles and encourage them to apply for promotions. By working at the employer association level and then comparing outcomes in each member organization within the sector, there is an incentive for all employers to take action.

This approach is an effective strategy to assist women to achieve promotion, since the employers review their overall policies and practices to ensure that any barriers are removed. There is evidence that while organizations may be aware of the need to take action, they may not necessarily have identified and implemented strategies to either achieve these goals or monitor progress. The effectiveness of Australian government policies for equal opportunity stems from a requirement that organizations monitor progress in implementing EEO policies and report findings to government. This is one of the reasons why there has been an increase in the numbers of women working at a senior level in Australia, particularly in the public sector. Dr. Alison Crook, who held the post of director of the State Library of New South Wales, became Australian Businesswoman of the Year. Her appointment raised the public profile of women managers—and, of course, librarians.

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We recognize that both men and women can experience sexual harassment in the workplace, and men have brought a number of cases against women supervisors or managers. But sexual harassment is more likely to be experienced by women. It is a form of intimidation that has been described as being a "... slow, relentless accumulation of slights and insults that add up to ... we don’t want you here, and [to prove that to you don’t belong] we are going to make you uncomfortable" (Faludi quoted by Tobias, 1997: 119). A review of women and sexual harassment in the U.S. provides explanations of sexual harassment, who is harassed and who does the harassing, the consequences for employees and organizations, and individual reactions and coping strategies (Cleveland, 1994).

The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission in the U.S. has put forward a general definition of sexual harassment:

The U.S. Office of Human Resources provided a more concrete definition that indicated sexual harassment can be divided into three categories: verbal (e.g., telling sexual jokes, cat-calls); non-verbal (e.g., looking a person up and down, blocking their way, throwing kisses); and physical (e.g., touching a person, patting or stroking) (Office of Human Resources, 1991).

The effect upon the individual subjected to sexual harassment is serious. Their reaction may be to try and ignore it. Speaking out can result in stress, particularly if the person causing the situation is a manager or supervisor. Taking a legal remedy can result in unwelcome publicity.

In 1998, the U.S. Supreme Court established rules for deciding when an employer is liable in a sexual harassment case:

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A considerable volume of research exists on organizational cultures, and a number of studies have focused on the negative impact organizational cultures can have on women in management positions. The phenomenon that has received most attention is that of the "glass ceiling" that a woman can encounter when she makes a move from middle into senior management (Davidson and Cooper, 1992). The experience of many women has been that, where this invisible barrier exists, it seems to result from the influence of male colleagues. Men are perceived to retain sexist practices and may not be comfortable working with women as members of a peer group. The ingrained corporate thinking can influence their behavior and, in its most severe manifestation, result in bullying. In turn, this can have a negative effect on women, leading them to doubt their abilities in the face of strong criticism and, perhaps, result in a re-evaluation of their goals. Views have been expressed that breaking through to senior management may require a "sledgehammer" to shatter this invisible yet very real barrier. A senior British woman diplomat who left the Foreign Office commented that her male colleagues spoke about her in sexist ways. She noted that when a woman is in favor, she is called "formidable," but when she is out of favor, the label is "strong-willed" (or worse) (Parsons, 1996).

Much of the research into the glass ceiling has been carried out in business corporations in the U.S. However, experience indicates that the major organizational barriers identified by one researcher, who studied conditions in the private sector, are also to be found in the public sector. The organizational barriers include:

• a lonely and non-supportive working environment
• a perception that views differences between men and women as being negative
• an exclusion of people from group activities because of their differences
• a failure to help individuals prepare for a management role and to balance work/personal life issues
• a lack of organizational awareness or savvy (Morrison, 1992).

Few organizations are consciously aware of their culture and it is seldom addressed in organizational induction programs. Newly appointed managers may be left to try and understand what really makes the organization work, where the centers of power reside, and the informal networks that influence decision making. If the woman manager is the sole woman working at her level, she may be excluded from the informal discussions and interaction that help to understand the true culture of the organization.

It is then perhaps not surprising that one type of an organizational culture which women find stifling is that in which "macho management" is operated. Macho management operates in a male-dominated organizational culture that researchers liken to a male "locker room." Many women who have moved into senior management will experience this type of culture when breaking through the glass ceiling. The Locker Room culture is an exclusionary culture where men build relationships that share common assumptions, agreements, and habits. Frequent references are made to male sports, and sexual comments confirm their heterosexuality. Dominant body language is used to draw attention to individuals during meetings. At its worst, women are encouraged to be "Superwomen," and they do this at a great risk to themselves. The "Smart Macho" manager feels under great pressure to be competitive and to reach performance targets such that they discriminate against those who cannot keep up.

Research carried out in the U.K. has identified other variants of behavior patterns in male-dominated cultures. The "Gentleman’s Club" views the woman as being the homemaker and the man as the natural breadwinner. This view can affect selection procedures and conditions of work and childcare. The management is civilized and polite. Male managers who are courteous, humane, and paternalistic keep women in their place. They ask about the employee and her family. Women who conform are accepted. It is the experience of most women who break through the glass ceiling that they have to manage the Club-and watch their back for gossip from men and women.

Another type of management culture found in hierarchical organizations is the "Barrack Yard." This is a bullying culture where supervisors intimidate and ignore subordinates. Usually, a small group, which can be vicious and use its power accordingly, dominates this culture. Such behavior would not be tolerated in a woman (Maddock and Parkin, 1994).

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With few exceptions, the majority of writers on general management issues have been men who wrote from a male viewpoint. But in the late 1970s, with the growth of equal opportunity policies and programs, a different approach to management emerged. A proposition was discussed that the adoption of an androgynous style of management would be beneficial. Rather than abandoning the traditional masculine behavior of managers, such as those associated with instrumental or problem-solving approaches, it was suggested that the androgynous style could blend masculine traits with a feminist expressive approach that exhibits a concern for the welfare of others and for group cohesiveness. This would meet the changing needs of the workplace and result in the fulfillment of personal goals. Managers would cultivate compassion and assertiveness, sympathy and tough-mindedness, and adopt these styles when they were appropriate (Sargent, 1991).

Some critics argued that the androgynous style of management could lead to further stereotyping, but in Germany it appears that a greater number of women have been promoted into management as a result of the influence of this literature and training programs that call for more flexible styles of management (Antal and Krebsbach-Gnath, 1993). More recent anecdotal evidence from the U.K. indicates that trainers have developed men-only programs that focus on negotiation and team building skills that are said to come more easily to women than to men.

A number of studies have been carried out which have examined the leadership styles of men and women, and researchers indicate that there are few differences (Ferrario, 1994; Wilson, 1995). There is, however, a common view that women prefer a transformational style of leadership, while men prefer a transactional style. One study carried out in the U.K. using the repertory grid interview technique with managers working in the public sector produced qualitatively different constructs of leadership.

Communication Relates to others on an equal Confident as a speaker.

and Interpersonal level. Able to influence others.

Skills Personally approachable (can At ease with people.

share personal information Communicates two-way.

and responds humanely). Can communicate effectively

Fun to be with. to a wide audience.

Sensitive – has time to notice

the concerns of others.

Conscious of impact of own

activities on others.

Communicates support of an

other’s point of view.

Working Style Creative use of others’ skills - Drive.

for their benefit and the Clarity of purpose.

organization’s. Gives clear direction.

Busy but accessible. Independent.

Strong and supportive. Career driven.

Can cope with concept of "love" Organized.

in the organization.

Recognizes delivery depends on

Others.

Thinks through issues when and

where they are leading people.

Develops teams in which people

grow.

Concerned to take people with them.

Starts with the presumption that

everyone wants to do a good job.

Additional Self-aware (comfortable Ethical values.

Personal with self). Relatively few firm views.

Qualities Good sense of how Open to ideas.

others see them. Cerebral.

Admits vulnerability. Confident.

Honest with own values.

Credibility with people

in and outside the

organization.

Source: Alimo-Metcalfe, 1995. (Reprinted with permission of MCB University Press.)

This section has considered some of the broad issues that research has demonstrated can influence women in management roles. While the numbers of women in management increases, the cultural, demographic, legislative, and organizational factors can affect career development of women. One approach that could be beneficial would be a changed approach to management style adopting an androgynous approach. There is debate as to whether there is a difference in leadership styles that can be attributed solely to gender. We now move to consider ways in which organizations can assist women to move into management roles.

Davidson and Burke (1994) have brought together in one volume a number of studies concerning women and management. Their introduction to the volume contains two lists. One indicates the benefits that can be gained by organizations if they are successful in developing policies and practices that support the career aspirations of women in managerial and professional roles and in creating an environment in which both men and women can succeed on merit. The benefit to the organization is that it can gain a competitive advantage. Now, while competitive advantage might be seen to apply only to the for-profit sector, all library and information services, whether they are in the for-profit or not-for-profit sector, need to attract and retain the best talents. It makes the difference between being a high profile or an invisible service. Davidson and Burke’s first list indicates the gains to the organization. It can:

• attract the best talent
• retain the investment (cost savings)
• optimize potential and productivity
• attract and retain clients (market share)
• better quality of management.

Their second list covers the costs to organizations if they fail to address the needs of managerial and professional women. These costs will be:

• not mobilizing your best people at the top
• not maintaining quality at every level
• treating a proportion of your employees as dead weight
• limiting the contribution women can make
• undervaluing promising people who want to take a role in family care giving
• not an employer of choice
• could be capitalizing on a tremendous opportunity.

Needless to say, it is important that organizations recruit the best person for the job-be it a man or a woman. As part of their human resources management program, we have already stressed that all organizations should adopt the principles and practices of equal opportunity. In many parent organizations, there will be a corporate policy on equal opportunity based on government requirements. But not all libraries will be working within such a framework; for example, smaller organizations in the private sector may be exempt from government regulations.

Without the support of the senior management in an organization, an equal opportunity program is unlikely to be successful. All human resource management policies must have top-level commitment from within the organization if they are to be effective. Managers and supervisors at all levels within the organization must also make this commitment.

The commitment starts with the establishment of an organizational policy and the development of a code of practice. The organization can write the policy based on a model prepared by the national body responsible for equal opportunity or an employers association. In the U.K., for example, The Committee of Vice-Chancellors and Principals established guidelines for use within universities, which the universities working together with the trade unions have monitored. Their recommended guidance to each university is to:

• Reaffirm its charter by formulating and making known to all job applicants and employees a clear policy statement on equal opportunities.
• Formulate and make known to employees clear guidelines on implementing its legal equal opportunities policy statement.
• Consider, where appropriate, taking advantage of those sections of the Sex Discrimination Act 1975, the Sex Discrimination (Northern Ireland) Order 1976, and the Race Relations Act 1976 that allow for positive action.
• Assign overall responsibility for ensuring formulation, implementation, and monitoring of its equal opportunities policy to a senior officer of the university, such as the registrar/secretary.
• Identify from existing staff or appoint a suitably qualified and trained officer with a proportion of working time devoted to matters of equal opportunities in employment.
• State on relevant recruitment material the organization’s position on equal opportunities in employment.
• Issue guidelines on selection procedures setting out acceptable practice under the law and its equal opportunities policy.
• Ensure that, so far as reasonably practical, personnel staff, heads of department, and other employees who come into contact with job applicants are trained in equal opportunities.
• Give particular consideration to flexible working arrangements and schemes for those with domestic responsibilities.
• Keep under regular review provision of childcare facilities.
• Maintain a statistical record as comprehensive as possible.
• Report annually through its committee structure to its council or senate on the workings of its equal opportunities policy.
• Make efforts to assess the situation with regard to the employment of people from ethnic minorities and where necessary take appropriate action.
• Make efforts to reduce imbalances in the proportion of women employed at all levels in the university structure.
• Make efforts to assess the situation with regard to employment of people with disabilities and where necessary take appropriate action (Committee of Vice-Chancellors..., 1991: 2).

While this list is comprehensive, it can be seen that that the points form advice rather than being requirements. The way the statements are presented allows variation in interpretation and adoption of good practice.

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As an example from the private sector, we have selected that of the Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS) in the U.S. In working towards the advancement of women within the organization five principles have been set down:

• open up the advertisement of all jobs in the organization up to that of vice-president
• devise a system whereby employees can apply for other internal posts without permission from their supervisors
• establish a Women’s Advisory Council to meet regularly with senior management
• design training programs assisting women with career planning
• monitor each woman’s progress within CBS (Davidson and Cooper, 1992: 167).

From these policies it can be seen that equal opportunity practices should include:

• reviewing employment guidelines to ensure that they are non-sexist
• ensuring that EEO policies and practices are known to all employees
• monitoring progress toward equality
• introducing flexible working arrangements
• providing for career breaks in a positive way
• offering childcare and day programs for elderly dependents
• providing appropriate career planning and counseling
• promoting participation in training and educational programs
• establishing mentoring programs
• encouraging networking
• assisting male managers to come to terms with changing staffing patterns and situations
• reporting progress to senior management at regular intervals, and to the work force at large

One issue that can emerge from corporate policies and practices is that of top management appointing a woman to a senior post, who is then seen by other employees as a "token woman" in senior management. While she has broken through the glass ceiling, other employees will scrutinize every action that she takes, and not all may wish her success. Any perceived failure or less-than-popular decision might become widely known and discussed—which does not help the woman’s advancement. The expectations of what the individual can achieve may be unrealistic. Senior management may feel pleased that they have taken decisive action to advance women within the organization. Considerable responsibility can fall on the shoulders of the newly appointed or promoted woman. This may involve "ceremonial duties" in addition to the tasks immediately associated with the post, as the organization likes to make the wider world aware of its forward-looking employment policies. Breaking through the glass ceiling requires commitment, good management skills, and a well-developed sense of humor.

We discussed the question of sexual harassment previously and noted that it is not an issue that only affects women. It must be treated as a human resource issue, and each organization needs to respond and develop sexual harassment policies and strategies for implementation in the workplace. The legal situation within the country in which the organization is located should assist in the formulation of a policy in which unacceptable behavior can be defined. Explicit disapproval of sexual harassment can be stated, and the process and possible outcomes of disciplinary action be set down.

The development of effective policies and practices always depends on adequate consultation between staff and management; but when it affects staffing matters, then the process of consultation is more important. The process should involve the human resource department and/or the institutional equal opportunities committee drafting strategies to present to senior management. Expectations and concerns will be evident as soon as this process starts, so it is important for morale that staff be consulted about the changes. When the policies and codes of practice have been agreed upon, they must be communicated to all staff at all levels within the organization.

In the case of sexual harassment, organizations should provide training for all staff concerning what is and is not acceptable behavior and practices. A number of people, drawn from all levels of the organization, should receive additional training and be nominated as people to whom staff can turn, in the first instance, to receive information and advice on a confidential basis. The provision of gateways to a consideration of further action through trusted colleagues will assist those who are the victims of unacceptable behavior. The pooling of information gathered by the nominated staff about problems that have emerged will, in turn, help to shape the organization’s policies and practices.

The EEO program should commence by taking an audit of the current position of women within the organization. This will include reviewing:

• the numbers of men and women at each level in the organization analyzed by age and qualifications
• the salaries they receive
• promotion rates of men and women in recent years; and resignations

An equal opportunities committee consisting of members, both internal and external, to the organization should examine the findings. This committee must report to an appropriate senior management committee or board and the employees at large within the organization if policies are to be effective. Systems to monitor the situation, perhaps on a six-month basis at the start and moving to an annual basis, should be put in place and the outcomes disseminated widely. The experience of the authors has been that the first time that this type of exercise takes place, it has been found that women have not been as successful as men at achieving posts at the higher levels of management. It may be a shock to the organization that believes that it has progressive employment policies. Women within the organization may be very aware of the situation, but for the male senior managers, it may not have been so evident, and they may face difficulties in understanding how to improve the situation. This realization can be coupled with the implication that it may affect the aspirations of some men within the organization, as not everyone can be promoted to a senior manager position.

Every employee can benefit if top management examines all employment practices and procedures for gender bias. This may start with job analysis, description, and evaluation. Chapter 14 considers these processes in general terms. The section that follows considers aspects that promote equal opportunity.

Supervisors have a number of approaches to use in job analysis. This can include information gathered from existing managers and the use of techniques such as the Critical Incident Technique (CIT). Some managers have criticized CIT methods since they may perpetuate the current view of management within the organization. Also, concerns have been expressed as to whether men and women would agree on the question of effective management styles. Alimo-Metcalfe has written that the "reality is ... that models, principles, and skills of management as bodies of knowledge have changed little with respect to the influence of women’s thinking and behavior since the early 1970s" (Alimo-Metcalfe, 1994: 95). Her research involved interviewing male and female managers in the public sector and found that "models of management" described by women and men are very different. Rosener (1990), in a study of gender and management style, found that men were more likely to adopt transactional leadership styles-relying on power and formal authority. Women, by contrast, were more likely to adopt transformational leadership styles-encouraging participation, power and information sharing, and enhancing people’s self-worth. If differences appear at the stage of job analysis, then there are implications of gender bias that can affect the later stages of job evaluation.

The staff appraisal system is a management activity in which gender bias can arise. As a standard part of the process, men and women should be given the option to be appraised by someone of the same sex if this is their preference. At a basic level this may assist the comfort factor in the process, with the person being appraised feeling that they may receive a better understanding of their strengths by someone of the same sex.

As we noted earlier, the presumed purpose of staff appraisal is developmental rather than judgmental, but it can also form the base of decisions concerning promotion. Concern has been expressed that there may be gender variations in the perception of performance appraisals. Research carried out in Israel and the U.K. indicated that females and males used different information bases when evaluating performance appraisal systems. It is important that managers be aware of these gender differences, examine policies and consult with staff to ensure that they are eliminated, and train all appraisers to recognize the inherent problems in the process (Hind and Baruch, 1997).

Recruitment and promotion policies need scrutinizing to eliminate bias and to ensure that women who demonstrate management skills are encouraged to apply for promotion within the organization. Clear job descriptions are essential and, together with the conditions of employment, should be distributed to all applicants whether they are internal or external to the organization. The assessment criteria for the position should be objective and gender-free.

Members of appointment panels, whether internal or external, will require training in interviewing and selection procedures that promote equal opportunities. The authors have experienced recruitment interviews, both as candidates and as members of the committee, at which the selection committee has not been aware of the need to ensure an unbiased interview (see Chapter 14). Negative and otherwise illegal questions about family responsibilities still sometimes slip into the interview process. Care in setting up appointment panels can ensure that they do not consist only of men; prospective women managers may gain a negative impression of the organization from an all-male panel.

Promotion policies and practices should take into account any affirmative action requirements, for in some countries there will be a statutory requirement to increase the number of women in senior management roles. If no such requirement exists, then examination of the procedures should ensure that they are not biased in favor of men or women.

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In the U.S., a number of organizations have policies that assist dual career families to move from one part of the country to another by offering spouse relocation packages in which the partner of the person offered a job is also found a suitable post.

All of these actions require that the people implementing them have the necessary training and be able to recognize the danger signals that might impede the progress of minority group members. The organization must provide training programs for all staff, at all levels, to make them aware of the contribution that they can make to the implementation of effective policies.

Training programs will underline the importance that the organization places on the need to be seen as forward thinking in their policies and that quick, corrective action will be taken about practices in the workplace that create an atmosphere that is not supportive of change. Training programs should draw attention to any unwritten codes and behavior that may be preventing or discouraging women from networking or socializing within the organization. It is interesting to observe the reactions of men who may have been used to working in an all-male "team" situation when it changes to include a number of females and the general conversation moves into fields of greater interest to women. A feeling of alienation may form, perhaps much more so for men than for women, who are more likely to expect to encounter sexist conversation. Training programs can help to overcome these problems.

Participation by women in in-house training courses has an additional benefit in facilitating networking across the organization.

Finally, management development policies should be scrutinized to ensure that both sexes have equal access to training programs and that age is not a factor in order to reduce the negative effort for those who have had a career break.

Maternity and paternity leave are becoming part of established employment policies and can help parents enjoy (and more fully participate in) the early period of their child’s life. The length of time and payment made during such leave varies in different countries. Employers can maximize the benefits by ensuring that those taking leave are kept in touch with changes, notified of vacancies and training courses, and made to feel part of the work team. This helps both the employer and the employee, and could be a role for a staff association.

A positive attitude toward career breaks can also feed into the management development program by offering another employee the chance to demonstrate his or her skills for a limited period of time. This can be a rewarding opportunity for the employee and can assist in future promotion decisions for the management.

The question of payments made to staff during a career break needs examination to ensure that pension rights and other employment benefits are preserved without a loss (or at minimum cost) to the employee. Pensions are not likely to be a top priority issue for a new parent, but a career break can affect seniority and retirement income for many professionals who contribute to an employer's pension plan.

With an increasing number of parents continuing in their careers, the provision of childcare needs to be addressed by the employer (with the question of care for older, dependent relatives considered as well). In larger organizations it may be possible to provide appropriate services on the premises-this is a recognized benefit to both the employee and employer in reducing career concerns. Some organizations are able to move beyond the provision of such a facility and offer a subsidized service that helps to attract talented staff. There is also a need to have clear guidelines for all staff on their rights if emergencies occur within the family-how far leave extends, a procedure for rapid consideration of a request for emergencies, and what happens if there is no time to make a formal request.

Flexible ways of working are helpful for all employees, men and women alike. Part-time positions, flexible hours, job sharing, job splitting, and annualized hours are available in many organizations (and can work very well in libraries that provide a service over extended hours). Given developments in information technology, telecommuting is an employment concept that has been successfully introduced within different countries. One U.K. example is of the manager of information and special services at a county library who works from home. Together with her manager, she has listed the factors that need to be taken into account in this arrangement. She stresses that telecommuting is not a substitute for childcare, in that distractions must be minimized. Her manager emphasizes that communication has improved in both quality and frequency, and the employer saw that flexible working practices could reduce overheads (Campbell and Froud, 1995).

Some countries introduced affirmative action policies as a means of increasing the numbers of women and other minority groups in senior positions. Government requirements in this area may be a "quick fix"; however, this approach is not without its problems and requires careful handling if it is to succeed. Women promoted to senior positions under such plans face the prospect of some people believing it was policy rather than merit that led to the promotion. Some women in management are still working under circumstances in which they believe that they have to be that much better than men in order to achieve promotion. The debate continues, but a review of organizational policies and procedures can assist with the development of women managers.

The general issues concerning career development are considered in Chapter 20 and, at this point, we focus on those that may be of importance to women.

In the same manner that there has been debate concerning the education of girls and whether it schools should be single sex or mixed, so the question has been raised in relation to management training for women. The business schools have been active in offering programs for mixed groups and women only. One example of a single sex program was offered by the Australian Management College, entitled "Executive Management for Women," a one-week residential program. The college considered that bringing women from senior levels to network and problem-solve around the obstacles they face would be helpful. Its program provided women with an opportunity to develop their understanding, skills, and confidence as women executives and to focus on issues and learning that concern women more than men. But the question is controversial. One woman involved in teaching both mixed and women-only groups has commented that, in her experience, women want to discuss their experiences of men who do not share their value systems and how this fact of life can be managed. Within a women-only learning situation the group may be more supportive of this topic than in a mixed course. Women listen to the ideas of others, help each other, work to wards a consensus, and are keen to learn (Fonda, 1986).

We chose to discuss assertiveness as it has featured prominently in the literature. Many women have had to overcome the paternalism of senior management and often from their male peers. Women have to acquire power if they are to be effective in the managerial role and must place emphasis on developing the skills of being assertive, as well as those of self-confidence. Knowing you have the ability to perform the tasks-and excel-leads to self-confidence. When you are sure of your abilities, you speak up and make an impact. Learning to understand yourself in terms of attitude and behaviour patterns is a precursor to becoming more assertive. There are a number of ways to develop these skills. One of the most effective is to take a course that teaches the skills and provides feedback on the individual’s level of assertiveness from other participants in a non-threatening way. Many library associations and management training organizations offer these programs. Another way is to find a text that considers assertiveness in the woman’s particular cultural setting. There is, however, a possibility that over-assertiveness can turn into a form of aggression-which does not help the woman manager. The emphasis should be placed on developing self-confidence and self-esteem as a way to present ideas effectively in order to make a mark within the organization.

Networking plays an important part in management development, especially for women. Meeting other women managers within the information and library profession, senior women within the employing organization, and in other fields of employment provides an opportunity to share ideas and experiences in a collegial way. Informal learning can bring many benefits in developing strategies and learning effective tactics. But networking must extend to networking with men within the organization. It can be much more difficult to do this effectively. If the organization has a canteen or club, then there may be a natural meeting place for all staff, and so networking is easier. But if these natural meeting-places have not been provided, then meeting male members of a peer group can present problems. The experience of the writer in being the only woman at senior management meetings has been that the period of socialization at the start of meetings focuses on the latest outcomes of "male" sporting activities. If you can’t beat them, then join them and learn about Aussie Rules, soccer, baseball, or cricket-at least you will not be silent and "invisible."

We write of the obstacles that may be encountered along the way to progress. They need to be recognized so that strategies can be developed to overcome them. A number of studies have identified those that women have faced in library management. One study from Iceland indicated that women demonstrated a lesser degree of sex-role differentiation than in other Western countries. Women felt that the main career barriers were due to a lack of self-confidence and not seeing themselves as managers. This was more important than the dual role of caring for the family and having a career. The remedies that they suggested would be to remove their own barriers, recognize their potential, take assertiveness training, set goals and priorities, and re-evaluate socialization and child-rearing practices (Weingand, 1995).

A review of the literature indicates that some obstacles are visible, while others are less visible. The visible obstacles include a lack of targets for the inclusion of more women in training programs, a lack of flexible working arrangements, and the absence of childcare arrangements. It was found, however, that the invisible barriers might play a greater part in impeding progress. These include gender stereotyping in organizations where being a manager equals being a man, which may lead to negative attitudes toward women managers (Ferrario, 1994).

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The attributes and skills that a woman should have in order to handle less-than-supportive environments include having a sound understanding of management theory and practice, an ability to integrate theory and practice into the work setting, good professional skills and knowledge, excellent communication skills, a thick skin, a sense of humor, patience, great energy, and an ability to be assertive without being aggressive. Some of these skills and attributes can be learned in the lecture room, but much is gained from work experience and by drawing on the experiences of others. Organizations may take time to change their culture so that it is more hospitable to women managers, and women have to expect to work within the system and change it gradually.

A study, which compared the career patterns of women librarians and women MBAs, has some encouraging findings for the profession. It was found that it was easier to combine a career in librarianship with having a family than it was to combine a career in business with having a family. One reason was the greater likelihood of finding a part-time post in a library. But this had, however, a negative effect upon the later salaries received by the librarians. The women MBAs had an advantage in that they generally received higher salaries than the librarians did and were better able to afford childcare and home help. At a later stage in their careers, the MBAs were also likely to receive higher salaries than the librarians, which helped to make up for any loss in earnings while they were taking a break to raise a family (Olsen, et al, 1990).

A group of 21 successful women in British librarianship have told of their experiences in building their careers, of the conflicts that had to be faced, and the decisions they had to make. They feel that the factors that contributed to their achievements were hard work, making choices, determination, and the ability to recognize and seize opportunities. Their stories will strike a chord with women in other countries (Burrington, 1993).

Developing the members of a team is a task in which women managers generally excel. Encouraging a team to formulate plans, implement programs, and learn from successes and failures will assist personal growth and enhance motivation. Above all there is a need to be aware of personal strengths. Make senior management aware of your successes and let them share the achievements. Every senior manager enjoys reflected glory.

Finally, research first carried out in the 1970s is the basis for advice that is still valid in the late 1990s:

• accept that differences will remain with us for the rest of our lives-and this remains true of any member of any minority group
• ask yourself whether you want to succeed in a management career that may involve competing with others in a system in which they are more comfortable
• consider the costs and rewards of management positions
• reflect upon where you are now
• ask, "What do I need to do to succeed?" (Hennig and Jardine, 1978)

The emphasis must be on taking a positive approach to self-development and to the management role itself, which is advice easier to talk or write about than it is to follow.

Before we leave this area, let us take a moment to return to some points made at the outset of the chapter. Our intention has been to draw attention to some of the factors that can increase the numbers of women in management positions. We have discussed some of the barriers that exist which may deter career advancement while reviewing the actions people can take to gain a "balance" of the sexes in management. Many of the strategies can also be applied to other minority groups. We wish to emphasize that other chapters in this book also provide contextual information, particularly those that focus on environmental issues, innovation and change, the planning process, and communication and personnel. But perhaps the most important issue is that of leadership. Table 19.1 provides evidence of the way in which men and women perceive the characteristics of managers with leadership skills. Wide differences emerge between the views of the two sexes about communication and interpersonal skills, working styles, and personal qualities. This needs to be recognized by both men and women and action taken to ensure that there is equality of opportunity to progress in the management role.

One must keep in mind that the situation of women and the development of information and library services will vary in different parts of the world; therefore, the strategies proposed must be adapted to local conditions.

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