Cultural diversity is of growing importance to library managers. The extent to which it is an issue depends upon the level of national awareness. The U.S., for example, has produced extensive literature on the general issues as they relate to information and library management. In the U.K. there is increasing awareness, although less writing on the subject than in the U.S. Equal opportunity and sex discrimination were recognized as issues at an earlier date than racial discrimination, and so have received more attention in the professional literature.

There are four reasons why we need to examine cultural diversity in relation to library management. The first is that a number of the people with whom we work as part of a team may not have been raised in the society where they are now working. The team may be culturally diverse. The second reason is that we are likely to be providing a service to a multicultural community. The third reason is that we are part of a mobile profession. This trend is becoming more noticeable in Europe as the European Union encourages mobility in the labor market. An increasing number of ILS students are taking part of their studies in another European country. The fourth reason is that the profession operates on a global basis. We have to make effective connections with colleagues from around the world who may not do things the way to which we have become accustomed.

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Working in a culturally diverse situation is challenging; managing a culturally diverse service presents even greater challenges. The rewards, however, are great in opening our minds and sharing experiences. Seeing our own society, with its habits, customs, and beliefs that we may take for granted, through the eyes of an incomer heightens self-awareness and self-understanding. In this chapter, we will examine two aspects of management: working with staffs that are culturally diverse and providing a service to a culturally diverse community.

We need to start by understanding what is meant by cultural diversity. Geert Hofstede provides an introduction to culture and organizations. She writes "every person carries within him or herself patterns of thinking, feeling, and potential acting which were learned throughout their lifetime. Much of it has been acquired in early childhood… As soon as certain patterns… have established themselves … (s) he must unlearn these before being able to learn something different, and unlearning is more difficult than learning for the first time" (Hofstede, 1997: 4). Hofstede also distinguishes between the several layers of culture that people carry within them as mental programming. They are:

• a national level according to one’s country (or countries for people who migrated during their lifetime)
• a regional and/or ethnic and/or religious and/or linguistic affiliation level, as most nations are composed of culturally different regions and ethnic and/or religious and/or language groups
• a gender level, according to whether a person was born as a girl or boy
• a generation level, which separates grandparents from parents from children
• a social class level, associated with educational opportunities and with a person’s occupation or profession
• for those who are employed, an organizational or corporate level according to the way employees have been socialized by their work organization (Hofstede, 1997: 10).

Hofstede’s discussion of the issues concerning culture forms a readable introduction to the subject. Osif and Harwood (1997) have prepared a reading list on diversity for information professionals.

Many countries have immigration policies that enable people to enter and join the community at large. In some countries the incomers are encouraged to meld into the community and accept the prevailing values while other countries have encouraged the incomers to retain their national identities. Hofstede writes of the national identity; however, the authors are sensitive to cultural diversity that can exist within national boundaries. Immigrants, as in the case of Australia, may outnumber the indigenous community. Historically, the first migrants to Australia were drawn from the U.K.; today a greater proportion now arrives from Southeast Asia and European countries. Another aspect of national identity is the growing attention being paid to nationalism in many countries, such as Canada, and, within the U.K., the setting up of separate governments in Scotland and Wales.

The U.S is a nation of immigrants, from the first Native Americans to today’s new arrivals. Most of the large cities are microcosms of the world. Los Angeles County is a community of 9.1 million people. Some of its interesting diversity facts as a city/community are:

• It is the largest Native American city
• It is the second largest "Canadian city"
• It is the third largest "Mexican city"
• It is the second largest "Guatemalan city"
• It is the second largest "Filipino city"
• Has the largest Armenian population outside of Armenia
• Has more Samoans than Samoa
• The Los Angeles School District has a student enrollment that speaks 96 different first languages (Pearlstone, 1990).

In such an environment, it is inevitable that the work force is multicultural.

Within this diverse community it is essential that we recognize cultural diversity; learn to understand, value, and respect fellow human beings; and find common ground on which relationships can be built that demonstrate trust and mutual respect. There must be an awareness of the potential clash of values, the need for free speech, and for civil rights to be upheld.

The U.S. has focused considerable attention on diversity. Freedman, the president of Dartmouth College, has stated that, "the fundamental reason that diversity is important is that we are a diverse country and our leadership is necessarily going to have to be drawn from a spectrum of ethnic, religious, and racial groups if we are to be successful as a democracy" (McLaughlin, 1991). Education has a role to play in bringing diverse student bodies to their campuses and demonstrating a commitment to educating men and women from majority and minority groups who will be the community leaders in the future. The understanding of this reality has resulted in academic librarians in the U.S. taking a lead in developing services for cultural diversity. Buttlar has reported a survey of 200 academic library directors in which 92percent responded that they have allocated funding to facilitate cultural diversity (Buttlar, 1994). This funding will be spent on developing multicultural collections, recruiting librarians from minority groups, and providing bibliographic instruction for foreign students. Ebony Man has featured seven of the most powerful Black men in America, all of whom are directors of public libraries (Reese, 1996).

Riggs has set down a framework that will assist library managers in developing policies on this question. "Making cultural diversity a reality in libraries requires a change in mind set, an understanding that the U.S. society is inherently pluralistic. What multiculturalism means for libraries must be carefully defined and well articulated throughout the library. Cultural diversity must be reflected in a library’s vision statement, mission, and goals; it must be included in the library’s strategic planning process" (Riggs, 1994: v).

The aim of this chapter is to provide guidance for the library manager to produce this reality.

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Clearly, cultural diversity will need to feature in the strategic plan for the majority of libraries around the globe. Riggs and Tarin (1994) have edited an excellent volume on cultural diversity in libraries. They draw attention to the work of Jackson and Holvino (1994) who have developed a model to assist organizations to move from being monocultural to multicultural. The model has three levels:

LEVEL I: the monocultural organization "seeks to maintain the status quo by enhancing the dominance, privilege, and access of those in power."

Stage 1

The Exclusionary Organization is primarily interested in the dominance of one group over the other oppressed groups on the basis of sex, race, gender, or cultural identity.

Stage 2

The Club does not outwardly espouse white male supremacy but does act out views in an attempt to maintain control and [the] privileges of those who have traditionally held power.

LEVEL II: the non-discriminating organization consists of " non-discrimination in a monocultural context"; i.e., it admits people of different cultures into the organization without changing fundamentally.

Stage 3

The Compliance Organization is committed to removing some of the discrimination found in the earlier stage of the Club by allowing minorities and women to enter, but avoids tampering with the actual structure, mission, and culture of the organization in the process. The organization’s method for changing the racial and gender profile is often to recruit actively and to hire more racial minorities and women at the bottom of the system. If they are hired or promoted into management positions, they are generally seen as "tokens", and must be "qualified team players." They must be exceptional and not openly challenge the organization’s mission and practices.

Stage 4

The Affirmative Action Organization actively recruits and promotes women, racial minorities, and members of other social groups that are generally denied access. Moreover, support of the growth and development of these minority employees is demonstrated through programs that increase their chances of success and mobility in the organization. The Affirmative Action Organization has evolved and now addresses employee attitudes toward oppression, conducts workshops on racial and sexual discrimination, and broadens its perception of diversity to include all socially oppressed groups. Regardless of this, the organization members remain committed to conforming to the norms and practices of the majority group’s worldview.

LEVEL III: the multicultural organization "emphasizes: a) diverse cultural representation; b) equitable distribution of power and influence; c) the elimination of oppression; and d) multicultural perspectives in the larger society.

Stage 5

The Redefining Organization-no longer content with just being anti-racist or anti-sexist, a commitment is made to examine the organization’s activities for their impact on all of its members’ ability to participate in and contribute to the organization’s growth and success. The limitations of the prevailing cultural perspective are questioned as to their influences on the organization’s mission, structure, management, technology, psychosocial dynamics, and product or service. New approaches and alternative methods of organizing are explored, which guarantee the inclusion, participation, and empowerment of all of the organization’s members.

Stage 6

The Multicultural Organization-the creation of a multicultural organization is a process that will take a long time. No organization has achieved the status of a true multicultural organization. There is no overnight fix. Efforts to change must be systematic, comprehensive, multi-faceted, multi-interventionist, and multi-year. There is no checklist of right things to do or series of events that, once followed, will lead to success. It is more difficult to manage a diversified work force because it includes different people with legitimate different wants and ideas on what and how work should be done. The path will not be smooth and mistakes will be made; however, progress can be made in the short run if mistakes are acknowledged and learned from and it is regularly stressed that managing diversity is challenging new work. The key element for creating a multicultural organization is accepting that it is a process, not a product. New issues will constantly emerge, as old ones are resolved. The work is never done (Jackson and Holvino, 1994: 17-21).

The profession in the U.S. has monitored recruitment for some years. McCook and Lippincott report that, having examined data for a ten-year period, the number of minority graduates from the U.S. library and information courses has increased. Although the situation has improved, it has only resulted in a small growth from 7 percent in 1984/85 to 10 percent in 1994/95. Asian/Pacific Islanders, followed by Hispanics and African Americans have made the greatest gains, but Native Americans showed a decline. McCook and Lippincott issue a warning that the "profession’s gain is not enough to bring minority representation in the profession to a parity level for individual minority groups … A 162-percent increase is needed to achieve true diversity" (McCook and Lippincott, 1997: 32).

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The question of recruitment and retention of a diversified work force has its roots in the ILS schools. McCook and Geist identified five tasks that must be undertaken if the numbers are to increase. They are:

• cooperative efforts to hire minority graduates
• additional monetary incentives in the form of scholarships, tuition waivers, and housing
• recruitment activities that start as early as the junior high school level
• recruitment of non-traditional students from military or community colleges
• development of an academic and social environment on campus conducive to success (McCook and Geist, 1993).

These are tasks identified for the profession in the U.S., and would not necessarily be appropriate in other countries; but they form a framework for action-action that may not be so advanced elsewhere in the world.

At the basic level there is a need to develop an understanding that differences exist in the attitudes and patterns of behavior in the different groups within a society. The newcomer to a society will experience culture shock. Many readers will have faced such a situation simply being a tourist in a foreign country or attending an overseas conference. We carry our natural values that may differ from those of people we meet. Some of the differences are obvious, for example the use of a different language or a different day being devoted to religious activities. Some are subtler, the attitude to time being either more relaxed or more rigid, for example. The rituals in meeting will vary from the warm smile, friendly handshake, and use of first names to greater formality and distance together with the presentation of gifts. The pattern of the working day varies in different parts of the world. Rituals and symbols can be more quickly grasped since they are obvious differences in daily life, but for the newcomer the problems really lie in identifying and understanding the values of the society. They are likely to be unstated. Much has to be learned and adaptation has to take place.

The experience of culture shock lies at the heart of a paper written by an American consultant on preservation that went to Malaysia on a three-month fellowship. Her reaction to the local situation gives a graphic impression of the experience of the culture gap between the two countries (Child, 1997).

During the learning process, the individual can experience frustration, helplessness, and perhaps hostility to the new environment as they compare the life they are used to with the one they have moved to. The first reaction is a short period of euphoria-the time when everything is new and thrilling. The second is the period of culture shock as the differences become more obvious and a sense of isolation from the new community emerges and it seems to be impossible to grasp the subtleties of the new situation; hopefully the incomer moves to a third stage of acculturation as they learn to operate in the new society and acquire the norms of behavior which result in self-confidence and integration.

Providing training programs can assist the newcomer, and these may be offered by organizations that are responsible for sending staff overseas, e.g. government agencies that have overseas postings, those that send professionals on a tour of duty overseas, and international organizations. But these are generally short courses and are not able to deal with the subject in depth. This is where the staff within the newcomer’s organization can assist by making them feel welcome and gradually helping them to adjust to the new way of life. The worst experience for the newcomer occurs when the question of culture shock is ignored by the employer so that there is a greater expectation of the new staff member than they can hope to achieve, and/or they are faced with hostility within the work team.

Wynn (1992) has provided some steps in building cultural bridges that can assist in working through the process of understanding:

1. becoming aware of the commonalties and differences among and between various cultures: Taking a look.

1. Recognizing that yours may not be the "right or only" way: Taking a perspective.
3. Investing yourself: Taking a part.

1. Getting assertive to confront the prejudice in others and ourselves: Taking a stand.
6. Evolving bridge-building projects: Taking a step.
7. Sharing the cultural bridges vision: Sharing the dream.

Training programs for staff in organizations that are culturally diverse need to focus on a number of issues. A starting point might be to consider the impact of tradition and expectations of the family. This could be achieved by working in small groups to discuss family customs and traditions, stereotypical beliefs about other cultural groups, how your family’s view of the culturally different shaped your own views, events that changed your traditional views, and family customs or traditions that can create barriers between people.

A second stage might be to consider stereotypical thinking. Pinkney has written on this topic from a North American perspective in a society in which conformity is valued and rewarded, while diversity is feared and discouraged (Pinkney, 1984). Attention is drawn to the differences between stereotypes, prejudice, discrimination, and racism, since prejudiced attitudes can be translated into discriminatory behavior towards minority groups. It is also true that prejudiced attitudes do not necessarily result in discrimination.

Stereotypes emerge from our need for coherence, simplicity, and predictability in an increasingly complex world. Without using stereotypes we would have to interpret each new social situation as if we had not encountered anything like it before. So stereotypes are a way of organizing information and observations, and prejudice will occur when negative feelings are attached to a stereotype. Discrimination has been defined as being the denial of power, privilege, and status to members of a minority group whose qualifications are equal to that of the majority group. The ugly side of racism enters when there is a belief that some races are inherently superior to others. It has been described as dehumanizing and violating the dignity and self-respect of the individual to whom it is directed.

A third stage can be the examination of communication styles, learning to understand different modes of interaction and communication. Reference points will vary with many Western countries focusing on the individual, while those from Asia, for example, may focus on the group or family. The authority base may be different, for example between men and women, with men relying on facts in arguing a point and women having been taught to trust their intuition. The degree of self-disclosure will vary; with a lack of information being seen as being unhelpful while another may resent over-intrusion into their personal lives.

The emphasis should be placed on helping the newcomers live and work comfortably in their new society by means of the understanding, assistance, and support that can be provided either within the work team or by the staff to the users of the service. The American Library Association has taken action to promote training programs to create cultural diversity and their documents and training materials provide a useful starting point for library professionals. While they are designed to be used in a North American situation, they can sensitize the manager and trainers working in other countries to the issues to be considered. This will stimulate the development of materials and programs that are culturally based within the situation in which they are to be used.

It is the goal of the manager in a culturally diverse service to ensure that all staff are aware of their personal responsibilities and operate in a sensitive manner.

The legal framework concerning equality of employment opportunity will vary from one country to another. In some countries a number of aspects of discrimination may be grouped together in one major piece of legislation, but it is commonly found that separate legislation cover such aspects as sex discrimination, racial discrimination, discrimination against lesbians and homosexuals, ageism, etc. Relevant legislation may exist at a several levels of jurisdiction. In Europe, countries within the European Union may have legislation at a national level, e.g. in France or Germany, but have a European court responsible for cases that can be brought under human rights legislation. Within Australia and the U.S. there can be legislation at both a state and federal level covering discriminatory practices. It is the responsibility for the manager to be aware of this legal framework through the consultation of official government publications and guides to the specific areas of legislation.

Although the individual manager must be aware of the legal framework, it is the parent organization’s responsibility to put in place policies for a culturally diverse organization. Without a commitment from senior management for these policies, they are likely to be less effective. There needs to be a vision statement that incorporates cultural diversity, with goals written in operational terms. Generally policies require a commitment of funding if they are to be successful, and senior management needs to have the authority to ensure that policies are turned into practice. No organization is likely to be successful if it pays lip service to policies at a time when TQM procedures are becoming a part of the management process.

The library must draw upon the goals set by the organization and prepare its own goals within that context. If the manager involves all the staff in the development of the goals, everyone will be more likely to make a commitment. For this reason, training of the type outlined in the previous section may precede the development of the goals of the service. Making staff aware of the issues will produce policies that can more easily be developed as practices. The program needs to be cohesive, communicated to staff and customers, supported by funding ear-marked for the purpose, and to have a program of monitoring and evaluation put in place. Involving the staff is essential, and in some services it may be appropriate to involve representatives of users, for example in academic and public libraries.

Frances Kendall described the steps needed to create a multicultural environment in a library. They are:

• an assessment of the climate using both formal and informal measures
• creating a long-term plan and establishing goals
• selecting a group of employees to work on diversity, and preparing them to work as models and facilitators
• begin training sessions with staff
• build diversity into the organizational structure

Kendall describes the elements of a successful transition to a hospitable work environment as being:

• the organization must believe in it, and the people in it can change
• the organization must address diversity at the personal and institutional level
• top management must genuinely and seriously commit to an ongoing examination of its attitudes as well as its policies and procedures
• the organization must view diversity as a long-term multifaceted, continual process, not as an event or a quick fix
• the organization must expect and be willing to deal with discomfort and resistance
• the organization must not avoid discussions on institutional racism when addressing diversity and multicultural environments
• the organization must develop a long-term plan for creating diversity
• the organization must develop a core staff willing to commit time and energy to bringing about a hospitable work environment for all people
• the organization must know that its diversity activities will mirror its other activities

Kendall provides advice on monitoring progress and the factors that may complicate the evaluation efforts. She draws attention to the following points:

• the difficulty of measuring attitude change
• a lack of a discrete beginning and ending of the task
• the isolation of the library experience from the outside world
• stress caused by other events in the library manifesting itself as resistance to diversity (Kendall, 1994).

This final point may well emerge as a consequence of rapid technological change and economic constraints.

Much of the success of the program will depend upon the leadership skills of senior management, and complications can emerge if they have been recruited from outside the community in which the service is located. Their experience may be of working in teams in organizations that operate in very different ways, yet the manager is expected to perform from their first day in the way anticipated by her/his new colleagues. Leadership styles can be culturally dependent, ranging from the autocratic to the quasi-autocratic, democratic, or participative. There is a body of literature drawn upon the experiences of international organizations, for example the volume edited by Rahim and Blum (1994).

Communication is a word that appears frequently in this volume. We mention it again at this point, because not only must communication take place, but also it is important that communication is effective. When working in a culturally diverse situation it is essential that managers assure that staff members fully understand the message. In some ways it is easier to communicate with those who have a different mother tongue, for there is a greater awareness of the differences. The danger can be evident when two members of staff come from countries which apparently use the same language, but within which there are subtler, or not-so-subtle, differences of meaning. This frequently occurs in the idiomatic use of language. One of the authors, who is British, remembers talking enthusiastically with a U.S. researcher visiting the U.K. to give a seminar. When telling him it would go down like a bomb, it was intended to convey the message that it will be well received by participants, but he understood this to mean it would be a disaster! And it took a little time for both parties to realize the impact of the message. Ensuring that communication is effective is essential, but this also has to be done without upsetting the self-confidence of the newcomer, who will be trying hard to become assimilated.

An earlier section considered the broad content of training programs that need to be organized so that existing staff are receptive to cultural diversity or to overcome resistance. Such programs should be offered on a regular basis to ensure that all new members of staff are aware of the issues. But a different form of an in-service program should be available to those from minority groups. In larger organizations this may be recognized as being a corporate responsibility for preparation at a general level. Such programs would cover the goals of the organization, its values, operating policies and practices, and expectations of new members of staff. Within the library, a special program of training may need to be developed for staff recruited from overseas. Although many of the operating practices found in libraries are common around the world, some may differ. This can be true, for example, in terms of the classification and cataloging practices and software used within the service. A custom-designed training program may need to be prepared after consultation with the new colleague, and evaluation takes place to ensure that it meets their needs.

The process of adapting to a new working situation can be assisted if a mentor is appointed, preferably someone who has moved through similar experiences. This will motivate the newcomer and help them to be able to raise points that may seem to be trivial but are essential to understand if they are not to appear to be "different." One of the pitfalls for people moving to Australia is to be offered home hospitality and to be asked to "bring a plate." An incomer may feel that the host may not have enough crockery for the numbers expected and dutifully bring along a plate. On arrival they find that this really means that they were expected to bring food as a contribution to the meal. It makes entertaining easy for the host, but is a social pitfall for the incomer.

Dress codes are generally not stated within libraries, but there can be unwritten customs and such information may best be conveyed through mentoring. Having someone who can assist the process of learning and adapting can speed up the process of assimilation and help to overcome the isolation that can be experienced.

The first step to take in implementing appropriate employment practices should be to consider the diverse backgrounds of the staff and ascertain to what extent they match the backgrounds of the customers served. Given the information provided earlier on the question of the recruitment of minorities to the ILS schools, there is likely to be an imbalance. It may be that a decision is taken to set goals for recruitment from minority groups.

Attention should be focused not only on the composition of the staff, but also the levels of attainment, years they have been in their current post, and attrition rates. It may be found that those in the minority groups have not been receiving promotions at the rate for staff as a whole, or that staff have been recruited from minority groups but have not stayed in post for any length of time. This can happen for either negative or positive reasons-they may not find the organizational climate hospitable. Conversely, there may be a shortage of people from their ethnic background, so they may be highly sought after in the labor marketplace. This has been experienced in a number of countries where programs have been put in place to encourage minority recruitment.

But the main point being made is that quantitative information is needed on the past and present patterns of recruitment and attrition. To this should be added the qualitative information as to why people leave, and this may be difficult for a person from a minority group to articulate except within a sensitive exit interview. Creating a climate that will support diversity will aid retention.

Position or job descriptions may discriminate in a way that may not be obvious and it is essential that the description be written to eliminate discrimination. The requirements for the post must not disadvantage any one group. Selection criteria should be examined for the same reason. The advertisements for vacancies may need to be placed in a wider range of sources in order to attract minority candidates. The local press could be used to attract the attention of potential minority candidates by organizing features that draw attention to the positive work on cultural diversity that is taking place.

In drawing up the short list for selection, attention must be paid to the need to ensure that no discrimination takes place. This may be a legal requirement with established guidelines. There has been criticism from minority groups that job descriptions and hiring criteria have been prepared by white males.

The process of selection can be assisted by the appointment of representatives from the minority groups to be interviewed. Once the appointment has been made, then training and mentoring program should be put in place.

Lucy Cohen (1994) provides advice that will assist in reviewing recruitment and retention policies. It covers the following points:

• review position descriptions
• review selection criteria
• review current outreach techniques and incorporate new ones in order to broaden the pool of applicants
• assessing the pool and interviewing candidates
• review the search file and recommendations
• additional considerations

• target opportunity funding
• provide training support
• provide individual job counseling to minority candidates
• intern programs
• recruit minority librarians and administrators who can serve as leaders and mentors.
• recruit minority support staff
• recruit minority student assistants for temporary support staff positions
• travel to recruit

In writing of the experiences of the University of Michigan, Cohen comments that the "issues surrounding retention are a bit more difficult to describe." Nevertheless, she describes her experiences under two headings: 1) create the climate that supports diversity and 2) educate staff (Cohen, 1994).

The most effective way to provide a service will be through the appointment of staff who come from different backgrounds and who can speak the languages spoken within the community. For countries that are multi-lingual there may be a legal requirement to provide a service in several languages. Examples of this are services in Canada (English and French) and Wales (English and Welsh). The provision may cover the language abilities of staff, materials in the appropriate languages, and the organization of activities, such as story telling, multilingual publications, and reference services. Appointing staff from a range of ethnic groups may present a problem since it has been shown that the numbers entering information and library schools may be limited in relation to the potential demand in the labor market.

The majority of libraries will have a documents-collection policy, but it may only be the minority of services that have addressed the question of developing the collection for cultural diversity. Diaz (1994) has provided some basic guidelines for building and strengthening the collections in academic libraries that have been adapted to meet the needs of a wider range of services. He suggests the following steps:

• lobby for support from management
• assess the demographic make-up of the community to be served, review the current collection development policies, and evaluate current holdings to decide how to fund the purchase of these materials
• assess the needs of the community served in relation to the strategic plan of the library
• identify a subject to be addressed in the first instance
• determine the scope and depth of the project
• develop guidelines for evaluating materials
• look for sources that list major authors, organizations, and works
• keep track of the materials that the IC does not already own and identify reviews of these materials
• order the materials (Diaz, 1994)

The organization and the senior manager will need to decide whether to set up a committee with a narrow focus on cultural diversity or whether to establish a broader equal opportunity committee. Many of the points made above concerning the recruitment and retention of minorities also apply to women in management. Arguments can be made for a narrow committee or for the committee to have a broader remit. The final decision will be taken bearing in mind the organizational culture of the library and its parent body.

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The supervisor or manager working in a multicultural setting needs to ensure that they become aware of the needs of colleagues and users who have different cultural backgrounds. The process of communication differs between cultures. The manager or supervisor needs to ensure that their own listening and observation skills are developed so that they are able to assess the comfort level of their staff and users. One example of the differences in communication contrasts the Japanese and the Americans. The Japanese communicate by not stating things directly while Americans are the opposite and communicate in a very direct way.

Employees may have different expectations of their supervisors or managers; it may not be a natural approach to question the words of a person viewed as being superior. In this event, mistakes can occur which are unfortunate for both the supervisor and the member of staff. In recent years, a number of texts have been written concerning global managers who may inform the supervisor. The supervisor can help the process of assimilation by providing a mentor and suggesting helpful reading to the incomer. Making assumptions about the level of awareness of local practices and customs is not a sensible way to proceed.

One of the questions that have to be faced is that of religious observance and national holidays. The organization may require that everyone conform to the holidays and dominant religious festivals of the country, which can have negative consequences. By contrast, it can take a more positive approach that would be to allow staff some flexibility. Since many countries now have multicultural communities, not everyone may wish to observe national practice but would be willing to trade holidays. That, in turn, could allow for more flexible service hours. Everyone needs a win-win situation.

Having considered the question of holidays, it should be emphasized that the matter needs to be handled sensitively. By making someone aware of the differences, it may increase their feeling of being different. Barbara MacAdam suggests the following for communication on the job:

• organize on-the-job training and staff development
• provide direction and feedback
• keep expectations realistic and clear
• evaluate performance and contribution
• foster relations among staff members
• define professionalism

MacAdam also indicates that it is essential to clarify any non-negotiable priorities concerning the family, religious matters, and social support (MacAdam, 1994).

The experiences of minority librarians in the U.S. appeared in a volume of essays, which challenges the view that the profession is inclusive and offers equal opportunity (Pinkney, 1984). A survey carried out by Library Journal in 1997 indicated that two-thirds of the white respondents felt that racism is less prevalent and that their career opportunities were not any better than their minority colleagues were. By contrast, the minority librarians, while not denying that there is much discussion, believed that this survey "amounts to lip-service and hand-wringing, with a more fervent interest in diversifying collections than ranks." The article points to unequal opportunities with race being a critical factor (Lifer and Nelson, 1997). Minority librarians in the U.K. have expressed similar views. These publications, unfortunately, make it clear that the process of achieving diversity is slow, complex, and requires the time and attention of senior management.

Given the issues of sensitivity, one of the easiest mistakes for managers to make is that of token appointments. Such action can create difficulties in another area of equal opportunity, that of the progress of women in the field of management.

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The expectation of users who have lived and worked in different parts of the world will vary. Although this is an obvious statement, we need to keep it to the forefront of policy development within the library. Some will have experienced highly developed services; for example in Singapore. For others the experience may have been different. Libraries may have been a natural part of everyday life, or they may have lived in a rural area with poor access to information services. Not all users will have a good command of the indigenous language or languages. This presents a challenge to the manager, but a greater challenge to new users of libraries.

A number of studies exist that address the information-seeking behavior of U.S. multicultural students. One example was a survey carried out by Liu and Redfern of students at San Jose State University, where the "so-called minorities" accounted for 51 percent of the total student population. Their findings indicated that for 60 percent, English was their second language. Over half said that their country of origin was an Asian country. In general, they reported that they used the library quite often, and the majority found that using the library was easy. Statistical analyses found that the student’s level of success in using the library was related to English proficiency, frequency of library use, and the frequency of reference desk inquiries. Among those who were less successful, the reasons that contributed to avoidance of using the reference desk were:

• afraid of asking stupid questions
• afraid that their English was not good enough
• afraid of not understanding the answers well enough
• never thinking of asking questions
• do not know the role of the reference librarian (Liu and Redfern, 1997)

These findings are likely to be common in any culturally diverse community.

University students must overcome difficulties if they are to succeed in their studies; thus they are highly motivated to succeed. The barriers will be greater in the case of a public library where the degree of motivation for use may be less. The public library may be forbidding to those who do not speak the language of the community and are unaccustomed to the rituals of use.

The existence of unexpressed information needs that might be met by the public library was demonstrated in a study of the health information-seeking behavior of older African-American women carried out in Pittsburgh. The findings indicated that the women wanted health information and used a range of sources including their personal physician, print and nonprint media, family members, and close friends. When asked whether the public library has a role in the health information-seeking behavior of older African-American women, nearly all responded positively: 38 percent thought it "likely"; and 60 percent "very likely" that it could help them if they were to visit. However, their patterns of use were very different: only 11 percent visited the library "more than once a month" and 76 percent "hardly ever" (Gollop, 1997).

The implementation of changes to a collections policy may not take place without a reaction from those who have been well served by the former policy, since changing directions may not be accompanied by an injection of additional funding. To provide an enhanced service to one group may mean reductions elsewhere. This situation emerged in Australia when the National Library of Australia determined that, as part of its strategic planning, the library would have to substantially reduce its acquisition of overseas materials, being aware that some would be available electronically. The collection policy has been shifted to emphasize national identity, multiculturalism, and the Asia-Pacific region. The dissenters in this instance were the academics that had looked to the National Library of Australia to augment the collections held in their universities, principally the universities in Canberra where the National Library is situated (Macintyre, 1997). Few libraries at this time can make changes without making some cuts.

One way to augment the document collection can be to set up exchange agreements with libraries serving similar ethnic groups. Cooperative acquisitions policies can build a shared collection that can circulate between services. This can be helpful to public and school services where the collection can easily be "read out" by enthusiastic readers.

Identifying appropriate titles is not always easy, and acquiring them can present further problems. There are specialist library suppliers of documents in particular languages, but the identification of titles and the ordering and payment of invoices from foreign suppliers can present problems for the smaller library. As the World Wide Web expands and online shopping becomes easier, library suppliers may see advantages in providing this option. Some ethnic groups and national libraries have produced listings of materials, particularly for children. There may also be specialist publishers of materials in minority languages that can provide catalogs of publications and assist with the selection of appropriate titles. One example is the Welsh Books Council that publishes original writings in Welsh and commissions translations into Welsh, particularly of children’s books.

The multicultural library needs to be sensitive to the ways in which it provides access to its collections. Moorcroft (1992) has drawn attention to ethnocentrism in subject headings by discussing the field of Australian Aboriginal Studies, and similar examples can be found in other countries that use Library of Congress Subject Headings. Headings can be long and convoluted, Moorcroft quotes, as an example, "Aborigines, Australian-Australia, Northern-History-Congresses." Some of the headings are value laden, such as "Mixed Blood." Another example, which shows how Aboriginal people are regarded as "others" lies in the headings used for Aboriginal adolescence: maidenhood in an Australian community, which cannot be found under the general heading of "Adolescence," but rather under "Aborigines, Australian-Social Life and Customs" and "Aborigines, Australian-Northern Territory-Arnhem Land-Social Life and Customs." She makes the point that "Librarians have a social responsibility to ensure that information is easily accessible to all groups regardless of whether the content is politically uncomfortable to the dominant paradigm" (Moorcroft, 1992).

The question of making the collections accessible also extends to the consideration as to whether there is a need for signage in several languages rather than just the dominant language used within the community. It may also be helpful to provide multilingual OPACS, allowing the user to work in the language in which they are most comfortable. The simple use of different languages used to describe how to search the catalog can enable users to increase their skills in retrieving references.

The use of exhibitions and displays is a valuable tool in making users aware of the resources that can be accessed through the library. Giannini (1994) has provided a list of the benefits of displays and exhibitions:

• they make powerful visual statements about the contents and scope of the library’s collection
• libraries have to compete for the attention of readers
• they attract new readers by promoting information of interest and relevance to a range of ethnic and racial backgrounds
• they open doors to new areas of interest: different cultures, beliefs, and points of view
• librarians have access to collections of great depth and scope
• they sensitize staff to multicultural issues (Giannini, 1994)

The organization and preparation of displays and exhibitions can be an effective way to draw in community groups to the library. Offering the facility to minority groups in a public place will bring out community pride, provide information to the community at large, and increase the awareness of members of the minority groups to services available to them.

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Professional associations can play a major role in promoting cultural diversity. The American Library Association has pursued a program at the corporate level that has been carried through to its bodies that cover specific fields of professional activity and to regional groups. Recognizing that people of color are under-represented in the profession and in association membership, and through the ideas and insights into the community at large, the association states the need for leadership to retain and recruit staff from minority groups. Since 1994, meetings have been held at the national, regional, and state levels to exchange ideas and experiences about ways to make an improvement. In a leaflet "Stop Talking Start Doing" the following actions are suggested:

• create a welcoming environment
• make joining your association a positive experience
• identify specific membership benefits for people of color, such as special interest groups
• provide speakers and programs at meetings and conferences that represent a diverse group of people
• specify minority representation as a goal of the association
• plan for minority recruitment
• commit your association leadership to recruit people of color
• work actively to recruit and appoint minority members to the committee and leadership structure
• develop relationships with school and college career counselors to interest young people
• open up networks
• set up mentoring programs that will work (Stop Talking..., n.d.)

At a national level in the U.S., training programs are offered that inform members of the issues and equip them with tactics to advance diversity. This training is then carried back to regional and state levels as a result of training the trainers. The ALA’s LAMA (Library Administration and Management Association) established an Ethnic Group Taskforce that was formally established as a Cultural Diversity Committee in 1991. The current role of the committee is "primarily to maintain a high level of awareness of diversity concerns within the American Library Association as well as within the broader profession and society." Members are encouraged to contribute to the Cultural Diversity Fund, which provides librarians and their institutions with the resources to support programs that focus on diversity issues (Otero-Boisvert, 1997).

Another example of an organization working in this field in the U.S. is the Association of Research Libraries, which produced a SPEC Kit Cultural Diversity Programming in ARL Libraries with planning documents, activities, training materials, and position descriptions, drawn from a range of U.S. academic libraries (Association ..., 1990). An action agenda for advancing diversity in the library profession was presented to the Board of the American Library Association in 1995. This agenda set down seven components of a successful library-wide diversity program as being:

1. administrative agenda and leadership
1. management and supervision
1. relationships with co-workers
1. recruiting a diverse work force
1. interactions with library users
1. library services and programs
1. development of collections (Jennings, 1995)

There are a large number of useful publications produced by the ALA and its constituent bodies that are frequently updated. From personal experience, much can be gained from attending ALA training programs-even if you are working in a different cultural setting.

In the U.K., research by Clough and Quarmby (1978) drew attention to the need for public library services to serve the ethnic minorities, and this was followed by a policy statement on Library and Information Services for Our Multicultural Society issued by the Library Association in 1985 (Library Association, 1985). This set down a set of recommendations covering the assessment of the social, ethnic, and cultural make-up of the community served, consultations with individual ethnic and cultural groups to identify their requirements, and liaisons with organizations working with ethnic groups and opportunities for cooperation with other library and information services to provide materials and services. Other recommendations covered staffing and staff training, and the content of the curriculum at information and library schools. Services were encouraged to apply for funding available at that time from government sources at local, national, and European levels.

The Library Association has been monitoring the work of the American Library Association to identify ways in which it can assist minority librarians. There is an African-Caribbean Library Association that was set up in 1981 and, together with the Asian Librarian and Advisers Group, a major conference was held in 1997 that took as its theme the "Black Contribution to British Librarianship." The outcomes were similar to the issues, which have been identified in the U.S., which included the problems of Black and Asian librarians working in isolation (Morrow, 1997). The Library Association members are asked to describe their ethnic origin on membership forms to assist the LA to implement its Equal Opportunities Policy. About 18 percent have declined to comply, 80 percent describe themselves as being "white," and 2 percent are "other than white"-this represents about one member in 400. It has been pointed out that this does not indicate how many librarians come from the minority groups, what jobs they have, where they are working, the salary they receive, or how many are chartered (Dudley, 1997).

The need to draw professionals from across the community takes a different form in countries such as New Zealand and Australia where the indigenous population is underrepresented in professional occupations. In these countries, it is important to develop a pluralist approach and to the provision of services for the Maori community; action has been taken by the New Zealand Library and Information Association (MacDonald, 1993).

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Our case study draws upon the research of Lee Ann Paris (1997) who has studied the response to diversity within the libraries at Stanford University and the University of California at Los Angeles, using in-house and published documents.

Her study encompassed the years 1960-1990, and the two universities were selected for three reasons. First, the students came from similar demographic regions. Second, despite their geographic proximity, the ethnic compositions of the student bodies were different - in 1987 minority students made up 21percent of the student population at Stanford, compared with 33percent at UCLA. Third, Stanford is a private university, and UCLA is a public university. Paris selected the period 1960-1990 because it was a time of great social change within the U.S. and particularly within higher education.

The development of the university libraries is relevant to this case study. Leland Stanford Junior University had been established in 1887 as an institution where it "would be open to all students regardless of social position or sex", and hence did not charge for tuition. Stanford University opened in 1891 with a 3,000-volume library that had grown to 8,000 volumes by the end of that year. At the start international students outnumbered American minorities. In spite of the original aim of the university progress for women suffered when the enrollment of women was limited to 500 in 1899. The Stanfords were benefactors of the university, but in 1920 tuition fees had to be introduced and the composition of the student body changed, and in the 1930’s Stanford was described as being "the country club of California universities. By 1960 Stanford was recognized as a research university with stringent admission requirements. In the 1960’s new positions in the Stanford libraries were created in the fields of Germanic, Romance and Slavic languages, and later a Latin American curator. It became active in the field of African bibliography and worked to strengthen African educational materials serving new areas such as Afro-American studies. In the late 1960’s the Stanford Black Union presented a list of demands. During the 1960’s the Asian language collections were also strengthened, and in the early 1960’s the Hispanic American department was active, and a donation was received for the purchase of American Indian materials.

In the 1970’s minority student bodies were active and students demonstrated their awareness of ethnic diversity. In response the library’s collections were strengthened. By 1980 there were a number of language and area curators in positions, and librarians designated as liaison officers for interdisciplinary areas. Two Cultural Outreach Librarians were appointed.

The University of California started in 1868 in Oakland, and a branch was established in Los Angeles in 1919 on the site of the Los Angeles State Normal School that had acquired its first book in 1883. When UCLA opened in 1919 its library contained 24,000 volumes. Because its foundation was in the field of the educational arts, women students were in the majority, but as the range of courses expanded so the proportion of men increased. Until the early 1920’s the research library of the University of California had been maintained at Berkeley, but graduate studies commenced at UCLA in the mid-l930s. During W.W.II the Japanese-American students were interned and women students assumed leadership positions on campus - until the end of the war. An African Studies Center was founded in 1959 and a full-0time bibliographer was appointed, and a number of projects were set in place. Asian studies grew in the 1960’s together with Latin American and European studies. At the end of the 1960’s four cultural programs were established in the fields of Afro-American, American Indian, Asian American and Mexican American Studies. At this time a High Potential program was established which would increase the numbers of minority students. These courses included bibliographic instruction. The bibliographic work of the library increased during the 1970’s. During the 1980’s a conference was held to promote the provision of library services to ethnic minorities, and a number of exhibitions were held.

The evidence demonstrates that while both libraries responded to the increasing diversity in their student populations, their responses differed at the outset. UCLA responded earlier and in greater detail. Its work developed into a firm commitment to diversity and the support of minority groups. Paris suggests that this may be due to the immense diversity on campus and accountability as a public institution. Stanford appears to have been forced into action by the student demands in the 1960’s and 1970’s, the reason being that it is a private university. There appears to have been a lack of continuing support for areas such as Asian American Studies. From the 1980’s Stanford was responding to the concerns of the ethnic minority groups.

UCLA was proactive by creating library skills courses for minority users, provided a number of bibliographic services for students, prepared a number of exhibitions and publications to encourage awareness of diversity. A number of staff was appointed from minority groups.

By the end of the 1980’s both university libraries had demonstrated a firm commitment to support and promote ethnic diversity.

The case study demonstrates that while the two universities now support cultural diversity, the paths they took differed. One appears to have been proactive, the other reactive.

Although cultural diversity is the focus of this chapter, we want to emphasize that it must be an integral part of the library’s management policies and practices. We know it is of growing concern in society, and hence a major facet of management that relates both to staff and to users, both actual and potential.

The case study describe different reactions on the part of two academic libraries to the challenge of cultural diversity. One came under pressure to review and change its policies and practices-the other anticipated change. In reviewing the management of cultural diversity, reference should also be made to other chapters and the way in which they can contribute to culturally aware management. For example:

• environmental issues-knowledge of the legal framework and the policies of the parent organization
• strategic planning within the library
• staffing policies to ensure that they conform to good practice
• user services and the provision of culturally sensitive access practices
• training of both users and staff
• the visible promotion and publicity for the policies and practices to staff and users
• seeking regular feedback that is evaluated and is used to modify policies and practices where this is needed

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